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Crop care

Pruning, staking and mulching. 29 practices across 14 crops.

Summary of cited sources. TERAknow summarises published guidance from the sources linked on each page. Recommendations are general, not guaranteed: results depend on your soil, climate and variety, so confirm with local extension staff or an agronomist before acting.

Banana · Pisang

Full banana guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Vegetative growth

    Desucker regularly and keep one follower

    Remove extra suckers so they do not compete with the mother plant. Keep one follower sucker for the next (ratoon) crop.

    Technical detail
    • Remove suckers about monthly; NHB reports that removing them with part of the corm every 5 to 6 weeks hastened shooting.
    • Hill banana systems keep two bearing plants and two suckers per clump.
    • Keep at least 12 functional leaves on the plant; remove only dry or diseased leaves.
    Regions
    Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Banana guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Shooting & bunch

    Prop plants and protect the bunch

    Support the pseudostem when the bunch emerges, remove the male bud after the last hand, and cover the bunch with a perforated sleeve.

    Technical detail
    • Prop with bamboo or casuarina poles against the peduncle, especially in windy areas.
    • Cut the male bud after the last hand opens, leaving about 15 cm of stalk.
    • Cover with a 100 gauge polythene sleeve with about 6% ventilation once the last hand has emerged. TNAU reports perforated covers raised yield by 15 to 20% in its trials.
    • Covers protect against sun scorch, cold, thrips and scarring beetles.
    Regions
    Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Banana guide

Chili · Cabai

Full chili guide
    • Conventional
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Silver plastic mulch on beds

    Silver reflective plastic mulch suppresses weeds and reduces aphids, which spread viruses.

    Technical detail
    • Lay the mulch on the formed bed before transplanting and punch planting holes at the chosen spacing.
    • Plastic must be collected and removed after the crop.
    Regions
    Malaysia · Widely used in Southeast Asia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Straw mulch as a low-input alternative

    A 5 cm layer of rice straw (about 10 t/ha) keeps soil moist, suppresses weeds and reduces thrips in the dry season, and adds organic matter as it breaks down.

    Technical detail
    • Balitsa uses straw mulch in the shallot to chili relay system, applied after the shallot harvest.
    • Straw does not reflect light, so it gives less aphid deterrence than silver plastic.
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Vegetative growth

    Stake early and prune low branches

    Install stakes about one month after transplanting to carry the fruit load and stop plants lodging.

    Technical detail
    • Balitsa prunes side shoots up to 25 cm above the soil at about two months, which improves airflow near the ground.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Conventional
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Double rows on mulched beds

    Highland trials in Indonesia used plastic-mulched beds with two rows of plants at moderate spacing.

    Technical detail
    • Balitsa's Lembang and Garut trial used black-silver plastic mulch, two rows per bed and 60 x 50 cm spacing.
    • A BPTP Lampung highland system used 60 to 80 cm between rows and 50 to 60 cm in the row, about 17,000 plants/ha, in a double-row triangle on black plastic mulch.
    • These were trial layouts, not a single official highland standard. Remove used plastic after the crop.
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Flowering & fruit set

    Expect slower flowering in cool highlands

    Cooler weather slows chili down. Plan the picking calendar and labour for a later start than in the lowlands.

    Technical detail
    • Balitsa (2009), citing earlier work: highland chili starts flowering in weeks 5 to 14, against weeks 4 to 11 in the lowlands.
    • The same trial noted transplant shock when seedlings raised in the Lembang nursery were moved to the warmer Garut site. Harden seedlings in conditions close to the field.
    • No source fetched gives a fixed highland planting month; match timing to local rainfall.
    Regions
    Indonesia (West Java highlands)
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Chili guide

Rubber · Karet

Full rubber guide
    • Conventional
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Tapping

    Choose a tapping system and limit stimulation

    Low-frequency systems such as half spiral every third day (S/2 d/3) reduce tapping intensity. Ethephon stimulation can be used, but not continuously.

    Technical detail
    • Ethephon: 5% active ingredient brushed on a 5 cm strip below the cut after light scraping.
    • TNAU advises not using stimulation continuously for more than 3 years.
    • If trees show tapping panel dryness (brown bast), reduce intensity or rest them for 3 to 12 months.
    Regions
    India (Tamil Nadu) · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Rubber guide

Oil palm · Kelapa sawit

Full oil palm guide
    • Conventional
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Immature palms

    Ablate early inflorescences in young palms

    TNAU recommends removing all inflorescences monthly for the first three years so young palms put energy into growth.

    Technical detail
    • First harvest under the TNAU schedule is about 3.5 to 4 years after planting.
    • The TNAU nursery dose is 8 g of 15:15:6 NPK in 5 L of water per 100 seedlings. This is from one guide; adjust locally.
    Regions
    India (Tamil Nadu)
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Oil palm guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Mature palms

    Keep enough green fronds when pruning

    Fronds feed the bunches. Prune to keep a set number of green fronds and avoid over-pruning.

    Technical detail
    • PPKS: palms up to 8 years keep 48 to 56 fronds (about 3 below the last bunch); older palms keep 32 to 48 (about 2 below the last bunch). Below 32 fronds can reduce yield.
    • TNAU gives similar numbers: 48 to 56 leaves at 4 to 7 years, falling to 32 to 40 after 15 years.
    • Under-pruning and long harvest intervals favour bunch rot and bunch moth.
    Regions
    Indonesia · India (Tamil Nadu)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Oil palm guide

Coffee · Kopi

Full coffee guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Site & shade establishment

    Plant shade trees a year before the coffee

    Shade moderates heat, and shade-tree litter adds nutrients and holds soil moisture. Both Indonesian and Philippine guides plant shade one year ahead.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka/ICRAF: about 400 to 800 permanent shade trees per hectare, such as Leucaena, Gliricidia and Erythrina (dadap), planted north to south. Timber trees go on the edges.
    • ICRAF: avoid coconut and cacao (similar root depth) and banana (nematode host). Keep eucalyptus or casuarina more than 10 m away.
    • In the Sumberjaya (Lampung) study cited by ICRAF, coffee under Gliricidia and Erythrina generally did best from year 4.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Productive trees

    Keep shade moderate by pruning shade trees

    Too dense and too open shade can both raise pest and disease levels. ICRAF describes about 25 to 50% of light reaching the coffee as the optimum for fruiting.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka: at the start of the rainy season, cut about half of the shade trees back to about 3 m, keeping about 3 main branches.
    • ICRAF: leave at least 5 m between the coffee and shade canopy for productive coffee, and thin trees with overlapping crowns.
    • Pacific Pests lists shade, spacing and soil nutrition as critical cultural factors for leaf rust.
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Formation

    Train stems early and renew old wood

    Form a single or multi-stem frame before fruiting, then remove spent wood after each harvest. Old trees can be rejuvenated rather than replaced.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka tops robusta at about 170 cm; the Philippine guide caps the main stem at about 1.6 m in year 3. Remove suckers and excess branches.
    • After harvest, cut dead, crossing and unproductive branches, especially those that have fruited 3 to 5 times.
    • For trees about 10 to 30 years old, the Philippine guide prefers side pruning over full stumping (about 30 cm above ground) because side pruning keeps part of the crop.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide

Cocoa · Kakao

Full cocoa guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Site & shade

    Establish light Gliricidia shade

    Cocoa needs light shade. Gliricidia grows quickly from cuttings and is the main shade tree in PNG guides.

    Technical detail
    • PNG handbook: plant sticks about 1 m long and 5 cm thick; they give useful shade in 6 to 9 months. Thin temporary shade over years 2 to 4.
    • ACIAR: about 75% of full sunlight is ideal. Pacific Pests suggests light shade of about 600 shade trees per hectare to limit black pod.
    • Prune shade before the main flowering period.
    Regions
    Pacific · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Cocoa guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Formation

    Prune to an open, low canopy

    An open canopy dries fast, which reduces black pod, and a low tree makes weekly picking possible.

    Technical detail
    • PNG handbook: start formation pruning 6 months after planting, aiming for a trunk up to 50 cm with 5 main branches by about 2 years.
    • Maintenance: cut shoots above 3.5 m and branches drooping within 1.2 m of the ground. Prune lightly each month and more strongly twice a year after the harvest peaks.
    • Pacific Pests (pod borer): prune every 6 months and keep trees no more than 3 m tall.
    Regions
    Pacific · Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Cocoa guide

Sugarcane · Tebu

Full sugarcane guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Ratoon renewal

    Inspect and relieve compacted ratoon rows

    After harvest, inspect the row shoulders and address compaction where it limits the next crop's roots.

    Technical detail
    • TNAU's ratoon guidance includes work beside the ridges to break compaction.
    • Avoid burning the trash; plan residue handling for the field conditions.
    Regions
    India (Tamil Nadu)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Source
    Crop
    Sugarcane guide

Coconut · Kelapa

Full coconut guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Mature plantation

    Match intercrops to palm age and canopy

    Choose intercrops according to available light, irrigation, soil and palm age.

    Technical detail
    • TNAU notes that intercrop suitability changes as the coconut canopy develops.
    • Budget water and nutrients for the palm and intercrop separately.
    Regions
    India (Tamil Nadu)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Source
    Crop
    Coconut guide

Tomato · Tomat

Full tomato guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Vegetative growth

    Stake early and prune to one or two stems

    Stakes carry the fruit load and keep fruit off the soil. Pruning indeterminate types improves airflow.

    Technical detail
    • Install a bamboo or wood stake 100 to 225 cm tall per plant as early as possible.
    • One-stem system: remove all side shoots. Two-stem system: keep the shoot just below the first flower cluster.
    • Prune on dry mornings, and remove diseased leaves and cracked fruit.
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Tomato guide

Potato · Kentang

Full potato guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Vegetative growth & hilling

    Hill soil up around the stems

    Hilling covers the stolons where tubers form, preventing green tubers and protecting them from tuber moth.

    Technical detail
    • UMN Extension: start when stems are about 30 cm tall and repeat once or twice, building about 15 to 20 cm of soil.
    • TNAU: earth up at 60 days with the second hoeing, also against potato tuber moth.
    • Balitsa medium-altitude guide: ridges about 40 cm high to prevent waterlogging.
    Regions
    Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Potato guide

Mango · Mangga

Full mango guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Canopy building

    Train an open, low canopy

    A low, open canopy dries faster after rain, reduces anthracnose and makes bagging and picking easier.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian 1-3-9-27 system: start at 80 to 120 cm height, keep 2 to 3 main branches at wide angles, then 9 secondary and 27 tertiary branches.
    • Maintenance pruning from about 2.5 to 3 years keeps the canopy 2 to 3.5 m tall. Pacific Pests advises keeping trees under about 4 m.
    • UF/IFAS: prune soon after harvest. Severe pruning reduces cropping for one or more seasons.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Pacific
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Mango guide
    • Conventional
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Pruning & flower induction

    Use paclobutrazol only on healthy, well-sized trees

    Paclobutrazol, applied as a soil drench at the trunk, can give earlier and more even flowering. Dose goes by tree size, not age.

    Technical detail
    • NT Agnote: collar drench mixed in about 1 L of water after harvest; foliar sprays were ineffective. Do not treat weak trees.
    • Wait until trees have a good canopy: about 3 years in high-density blocks and about 5 years at 10 m spacing.
    • Overdosing compacts flowers and shoots. Paclobutrazol can leave soil residues and is not allowed in organic systems. Follow the local label.
    Regions
    Australia · Indonesia · Latin America
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Mango guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Pruning & flower induction

    Tip pruning as a non-chemical flowering aid

    Pruning branch tips after harvest raised flowering in a Brazilian trial. Organic growers rely on pruning, irrigation and nutrition timing instead of growth regulators.

    Technical detail
    • In 'Uba' mango, unpruned trees flowered about 41% and tip-pruned trees about 84% without paclobutrazol (one trial).
    • A 2021 review calls for more research on pruning, girdling, fertilization and irrigation as organic options. Results are still limited.
    Regions
    Latin America · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    Emerging evidence: early or small-scale evidence
    Sources
    Crop
    Mango guide

Durian · Durian

Full durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Canopy building

    Prune for a clear trunk and an open canopy

    Removing low branches and opening the canopy improves airflow and keeps soil splash away from the tree.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian SPO: start pruning at 1 year, keep the main trunk clear to 70 to 100 cm and form the canopy at 2 to 3 m.
    • ACIAR: remove branches within 80 to 100 cm of the ground and plant no more than 80 to 100 trees/ha.
    • Seal large cuts and disinfect tools between trees.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Vietnam · Thailand
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Canopy building

    Grow durian in mixed systems rather than dense monoculture

    Mixed cropping and diverse agroforestry lower disease pressure compared with uniform susceptible blocks.

    Technical detail
    • ACIAR advises against dense interplanting with other Phytophthora hosts such as papaya, coconut and cocoa.
    • TFNet recommends mixed cropping, weed control and 10 m spacing for airflow.
    Regions
    Widely applicable
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Flowering & pollination

    Support pollination at night

    Durian flowers open at night and are pollinated by night-flying animals and wind. Hand pollination can improve fruit set.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian SPO: mix pollen with starch or flour at 3:7 and blow it onto flowers the same night. Store pollen at about 15°C if delayed.
    • Sarawak: a mixed planting of clones is needed to improve fruit set.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide

Pineapple · Nanas

Full pineapple guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Vegetative growth

    Grow pineapple with trees on restored peat

    In Riau, pineapple is grown between timber trees as part of peat restoration. This keeps cover on the land while trees establish.

    Technical detail
    • CIFOR and the Peat Restoration Agency trial in Bengkalis planted pineapple alongside tree planting.
    • The guide notes the practice comes from one project and may need adjusting elsewhere.
    Regions
    Indonesia (Riau)
    Confidence
    Emerging evidence: early or small-scale evidence
    Source
    Crop
    Pineapple guide
    • Conventional
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Flower induction

    Force flowering for an even harvest

    Ethephon or calcium carbide in the plant heart makes plants flower together, so fruit can be harvested at one time.

    Technical detail
    • Kerala: 50 ml of 25 ppm ethephon with 2% urea and 0.04% calcium carbonate into the heart of 10 to 12 month old plants, in dry weather.
    • Guam: about half a teaspoon of calcium carbide in the heart; wrong dosing of advanced agents can give distorted fruit.
    • Adjust doses to the product's active ingredient and the local label.
    Regions
    India (Kerala) · Pacific
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Pineapple guide

Citrus · Jeruk

Full citrus guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Young tree

    Form the canopy early, then prune after each harvest

    Formative pruning builds a strong, open frame. Maintenance pruning removes dead, diseased and water shoots that harbour pests.

    Technical detail
    • PTKJS: cut the trunk 30 to 40 cm above the base, then keep 3 shoots per branch to build a 1-3-9 frame. After harvest remove fruit stalks, dead or diseased branches and water shoots.
    • Indonesian guide (1993): remove flowers until year 3 to build branches; let fruit set from year 4.
    • Disinfect pruning tools with 70% alcohol or 5% chlorine before and after use (BBP2TP).
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Citrus guide
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