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Establishment

Planting material, nursery and land preparation. 24 practices across 14 crops.

Summary of cited sources. TERAknow summarises published guidance from the sources linked on each page. Recommendations are general, not guaranteed: results depend on your soil, climate and variety, so confirm with local extension staff or an agronomist before acting.

Banana · Pisang

Full banana guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting

    Start with clean planting material

    Use tissue-culture plants or suckers taken only from monitored, disease-free areas. Never take suckers from a mat with wilt symptoms, even if the sucker looks healthy.

    Technical detail
    • Tissue-culture plants are planted at the 5 to 6 leaf stage.
    • Suckers: trim the roots, cut the pseudostem to about 20 cm above the corm and grade by size so the block grows evenly.
    • Infected planting material is the main way Fusarium wilt TR4 travels long distances.
    Regions
    Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Banana guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting

    Choose cultivars with Fusarium TR4 in mind

    TR4 is now the main Fusarium race found in Indonesian surveys and it attacks popular local cultivars. Where the disease is present, favour lines that showed resistance in Indonesian field trials.

    Technical detail
    • The Indonesian Fruit Research Institute reported that more than 65% of isolates in a 15-province survey were TR4. Barangan, Raja and Ambon Hijau are among the affected local cultivars.
    • INA 02, INA 03, the local Ketan 01 and the irradiated mutants Pirama and Ampyang showed potential TR4 resistance in field trials. FHIA 17, FHIA 25 and SH 3640 were also proposed for growers.
    • Ask local extension staff which of these lines are actually available in your area.
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Banana guide

Chili · Cabai

Full chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Nursery

    Treat seed and raise seedlings under cover

    Anthracnose can be carried on seed, and thrips and viruses attack young seedlings. Treat seed, use clean media and screen the nursery.

    Technical detail
    • Hot-water treatment: 52°C for 30 minutes, timed with a thermometer (Pacific Pests & Pathogens). Balitsa describes soaking at 50°C for about an hour.
    • Balitsa: seedbed 1 m wide, facing east, under clear plastic roofing, enclosed with fine netting against thrips.
    • Media: fine soil and manure 1:1, steam-sterilized. Check seedlings for leaf spots before moving them to the field.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Pacific
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Pick lines tested in the highlands

    Chili lines do not perform the same in the highlands and lower areas. Balitsa trials found some lines yield well only at Lembang, so use varieties tested at your altitude.

    Technical detail
    • Balitsa (2009) compared lines at Lembang (1,250 m) and Garut (600 m). Lines 349-1, SF-1, SF-2 and SFK-2 showed high yield potential only at Lembang.
    • In a later Balitsa trial at Lembang (2016), the line YK-2 out-yielded the checks Perisai and Tanjung-2 in that trial.
    • BPTP Bengkulu (2021) lists the cayenne varieties Prima Agrihorti and Rabani Agrihorti as suited to the highlands.
    Regions
    Indonesia (West Java highlands)
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide

Rubber · Karet

Full rubber guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Budding

    Plant budded clones, not unselected seedlings

    Commercial rubber is propagated by budding a selected clone onto a seedling rootstock. Clones give more uniform and productive stands than local seedlings.

    Technical detail
    • Budding methods include green, brown and crown budding.
    • In Indonesian agroforestry trials, clones such as PB 260, RRIC 100 and BPM 1 were compared with local seedlings.
    • Choose clones recommended for your region by the national rubber research institute.
    Regions
    Widely applicable · Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Rubber guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Budding

    Plant budded material of a recommended clone

    Indonesian rules call for clonal planting material: a recommended clone bud-grafted onto rootstock from a certified seed garden.

    Technical detail
    • Ministry of Agriculture guide (2014) latex clones: IRR 104, IRR 112, IRR 118, IRR 220, BPM 24, PB 260, PB 330, PB 340. Latex-timber clones: IRR 5, IRR 39, IRR 42, IRR 107, RRIC 100. This list covers the 2010 to 2014 period.
    • Older clones such as GT 1, PR 255, PR 261, RRIM 600 and RRIM 712 may still be used depending on site and target.
    • Rootstock seed should come from seed gardens with at least 95% clone purity. Buy budded stumps or polybag plants with no more than two leaf whorls.
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Rubber guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Land prep & planting

    Plant at 500 to 600 trees per hectare

    The Ministry guide sets ideal density at 500 to 600 trees/ha, with layouts that suit intercropping.

    Technical detail
    • Spacing options: 3 x 6 m, 4 x 5 m or 3.3 x 5.5 m. For intercropping use 3 x 6 m, with the 6 m rows running north to south.
    • Planting holes at least 40 x 40 x 40 cm.
    Regions
    Indonesia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Rubber guide

Oil palm · Kelapa sawit

Full oil palm guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Replanting & land preparation

    Plant on a triangular grid in suitable soil

    A triangular layout at 9 m gives about 140 palms per hectare. Choose deep, moist, permeable loam with pH between 4 and 6.

    Technical detail
    • TNAU: triangular system 9 m x 9 m x 9 m; best planting season in Tamil Nadu is May to June.
    • TNAU gives a climate of 21 to 32 °C with relative humidity of 75 to 100%.
    Regions
    India (Tamil Nadu) · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Oil palm guide

Coffee · Kopi

Full coffee guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Site & shade establishment

    Match species to altitude and prepare holes early

    Arabica needs cool highlands and robusta suits the lowlands. Dig planting holes months ahead and fill them with manure or compost.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka/ICRAF: arabica above 1,000 m (ideally 1,000 to 1,500 m), robusta 40 to 900 m, liberica 0 to 40 m. The Philippine technoguide gives arabica 900 to 1,800 m and robusta 600 to 1,200 m, so check local advice.
    • Holes 60 x 60 x 60 cm, dug 6 months before planting and filled with manure or compost.
    • Use contour terraces on slopes.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide

Cocoa · Kakao

Full cocoa guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Site & shade

    Plant on deep, well-drained land with room between trees

    Cocoa prefers deep soil near neutral pH. Avoid poorly drained heavy clay, where black pod is worse.

    Technical detail
    • BPTP Bengkulu: effective depth above 150 cm, loam-sand to clay-loam texture, pH 6.0 to 7.0 optimal.
    • Pacific Pests: plant at least 3 m apart; on slopes, choose sites with morning sun so leaves dry quickly.
    • PNG handbook: 4 m x 4 m for big clones; 4 m x 3 m or 3 m x 3 m for small clones.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Pacific
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Cocoa guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Rehabilitation

    Renew old trees by side grafting (sambung samping)

    Side grafting puts a superior clone onto an existing tree. The old tree keeps bearing until the graft fruits, which Balittri reports can be about 18 months.

    Technical detail
    • Balittri: graft in the dry season, in the morning or late afternoon. Heavy rain after grafting causes failure. The rootstock must be actively growing, with bark that lifts easily.
    • Scions: brown-green fan branches 0.75 to 1.5 cm thick with 3 to 5 buds, from clearly identified high-yielding clones. Make a 5 cm cut 45 to 60 cm above the ground, insert a 3 to 4 cm wedge, tie with raffia and cover with a plastic bag. Check at 5 days.
    • In Central Sulawesi, overall graft success was about 95%, with Sulawesi 1, Sulawesi 2, UIT 1 and TSH 858 doing well. Local scion sources limit moving pests between regions.
    Regions
    Indonesia (Sulawesi)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Cocoa guide

Sugarcane · Tebu

Full sugarcane guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Establishment

    Start with a deep, well-drained root zone

    Check drainage and soil constraints before planting; sugarcane prefers deep, well-drained soil.

    Technical detail
    • Assess compaction and drainage across the intended planting rows.
    • The FAO optimum soil pH range is 6.0 to 7.5; measure the field before planning correction.
    Regions
    Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Source
    Crop
    Sugarcane guide

Coconut · Kelapa

Full coconut guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Establishment

    Choose a deep site with reliable drainage

    Check soil depth, drainage and the water table before establishing palms.

    Technical detail
    • TNAU prefers deep soil with good water holding capacity and warns against shallow rock and water stagnation.
    • On sloping or low-lying sites, design the planting area for runoff and drainage.
    Regions
    India (Tamil Nadu)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Source
    Crop
    Coconut guide

Tomato · Tomat

Full tomato guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Nursery

    Raise seedlings under insect netting

    Yellow leaf curl viruses are spread by whitefly, and infected seedlings carry the virus to the field. Grow seedlings in a screened nursery from whitefly-free sources.

    Technical detail
    • BPTP Jawa Timur (chili guide; tomato is also a host): isolate the nursery with 50-mesh gauze.
    • Queensland Government: source seedlings from an area free of viruses and whiteflies. The virus is not seed-borne.
    • Jambi guide: soak seed in warm water for at least 6 hours; transplant at 25 to 30 days or 3 to 4 true leaves.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Tomato guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Nursery

    Graft onto resistant eggplant rootstock where wilt or flooding is likely

    Bacterial wilt has no effective chemical control. Grafting tomato onto wilt-resistant eggplant rootstock protects against wilt and short flooding in the hot-wet season.

    Technical detail
    • WorldVeg guide: eggplant accessions EG195 and EG203 resist flooding, bacterial wilt, root-knot nematode and Fusarium wilt. Use a tomato rootstock (Hawaii 7996) only where flooding is not expected.
    • Tube grafting at 2 to 3 true leaves with matching stems of 1.6 to 1.8 mm. Heal in a shaded chamber at 25 to 32 C and above 85% humidity, then harden; about 30 to 33 days from sowing.
    • Keep the graft union above the soil, or scion roots can bypass the rootstock. Grafted plants cost more, so use them where soil-borne disease or flooding is a real risk.
    Regions
    Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Tomato guide

Potato · Kentang

Full potato guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Seed selection

    Use certified seed tubers of a known class

    Seed tubers carry viruses, bacterial wilt and late blight. Certified seed has set disease limits for each class.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesia uses classes G0 to G4. G0 allows 0% virus and 0% bacterial wilt; G4 allows 2% virus and 1% bacterial disease (Mulyono et al. 2017).
    • Certified seed carries a white (G0), purple (G1) or blue (G2) label (Balitsa 2021).
    • Pacific Pests & Pathogens: use certified seed, and source seed potatoes from crops monitored free of bacterial wilt for 2 years.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Potato guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Seed selection

    Plant sprouted, medium-sized tubers

    Well-sprouted, disease-free tubers emerge evenly. Very small tubers from low classes are mainly for seed multiplication.

    Technical detail
    • TNAU: well-sprouted, disease-free tubers of 40 to 50 g.
    • Balitsa grades G1 and G2 seed as large 90 to 120 g, medium 40 to 90 g, small under 40 g (source table partly garbled; verify).
    • Sprouting and emergence need cool conditions of about 12 to 18 C (Balitsa).
    Regions
    Widely applicable · Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Potato guide

Mango · Mangga

Full mango guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting

    Plant healthy grafted trees in prepared pits

    Grafted trees come true to type and bear earlier than seedlings. Plant at the start of the rainy season into pits filled with organic matter.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian guide: grafted plants at least 30 cm above the graft union (over 100 cm preferred), at least 4 months after grafting, with 2 flushes. Harden them in shade for at least 2 weeks.
    • Pits 60 x 60 x 60 cm in loose soil, 100 x 100 x 100 cm in dry or clay soil. That guide fills each pit with 20 kg organic fertilizer, 100 g NPK 15:15:15 and 250 g dolomite; adjust to a soil test.
    • UF/IFAS: avoid root-bound nursery trees, and plant on a 2 to 3 ft mound if the site can flood.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Mango guide

Durian · Durian

Full durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting

    Plant on raised mounds with good drainage

    Phytophthora palmivora thrives in wet soil. Avoid low-lying land and plant on mounds so roots stay above the water table.

    Technical detail
    • ACIAR: keep the water table at least 80 cm down. Mounds 50 to 60 cm high in deltas such as the Mekong, and 30 to 40 cm elsewhere.
    • Avoid planting on old rubber, cocoa or pawpaw land, which can carry the pathogen (ACIAR).
    • TFNet: do not grow durian in low areas with a high water table.
    Regions
    Vietnam · Thailand · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting

    Use labelled grafted plants and mix clones

    Grafted clones bear true to type. Planting more than one clone improves fruit set.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian SPO: labelled grafted or budded plants 0.75 to 1.5 m tall, more than 6 months after budding. Holes 60 x 60 x 60 cm, or 100 x 100 x 100 cm in heavy soil. Keep the bud union above soil and shade for about 3 months.
    • Sarawak: plant a mix of clones with D99 as a pollinator. Listed clones include D24, D99, D123, D168 and local yellow types.
    • ACIAR: graft onto tolerant rootstock where known; resistance sources are not yet fully identified.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide

Pineapple · Nanas

Full pineapple guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Land & planting material

    Select, grade and cure planting material

    Uniform, healthy suckers, slips or crowns give an even crop that can be forced at one time. Curing helps prevent butt rot.

    Technical detail
    • Kerala: suckers of 0.5 to 1 kg, shade dried about 7 days, lower leaves removed and cured another 7 days.
    • Guam: grade slips by size and cure butt-up in a dry, airy place for a week or more.
    • Time to harvest depends on material: about 12 months from root suckers, 18 from stem suckers and 24 from crowns (BPTP Riau).
    Regions
    India (Kerala) · Pacific · Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Pineapple guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Land & planting material

    Plant on raised beds in double rows

    Raised beds reduce erosion and root and heart rots. Double rows fit more plants while leaving paths for work.

    Technical detail
    • Guam: contoured raised beds, often with black plastic mulch; double rows are the preferred layout.
    • Kerala: trenches about 90 cm wide, double rows 70 x 30 cm, about 40,400 plants/ha, planted 7.5 to 10 cm deep.
    • Riau peat project: 70 cm between plants and 100 cm between rows.
    Regions
    Pacific · India (Kerala) · Indonesia (Riau)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Pineapple guide

Citrus · Jeruk

Full citrus guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting material

    Plant only certified, disease-free seedlings

    CVPD and tristeza travel in infected budwood. Buy label-certified seedlings from registered nurseries whose budwood comes from a screened multiplication block.

    Technical detail
    • PTKJS: scion wood must come from a Blok Penggandaan Mata Tempel (BPMT), a budwood block of disease-free mother trees in an insect-proof screenhouse (Balitjestro).
    • IAARD (2016) recommends blue-labelled seed and siting new orchards at least 2 km from endemic areas.
    • Florida likewise requires budwood and nursery production under psyllid-proof cover. Ask the seller where the budwood came from.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Citrus guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Prepare holes and keep the bud union high

    Plant at the start of the rainy season into prepared holes, with the graft union well above the soil to keep it out of wet soil.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian guide (1993): holes at least 60 x 60 x 50 cm, sun-dried 2 to 4 weeks, backfilled with manure; stake young trees and mulch with straw.
    • UF/IFAS: plant with the bud union more than about 15 cm (6 inches) above the soil line, with adequate drainage.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Citrus guide
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